Wilderness Survival

From Mizahar Lore

Wilderness Survial is the skill of being able to survival in the wilderness of different climates. Survival in the wilds of Mizahar is not an easy task. Other than the occasional village, trading post or crossroads inn, most centers of civilization are isolated and distant from one another. To effectively survive outside of civilization requires knowledge of one's surroundings, current and potential situation, personal physical and mental condition as well as available equipment. One cannot expect to find everything they need to survive in the wild.

Always being prepared for a survival situation is the key to survival. Being prepared is having the required knowledge if not equipment at all times.

Contents 1 Always Be Prepared 2 Know Where You Are 3 Improvise 4 Know Your Natives 5 Keep Your Wits About You 6 Plan For It (Survival Kit) 7 Find Shelter, Get Water, Start A Fire 7.1 Shelter 7.2 Water 7.3 Fire 8 Need Food Badly 8.1 Snares And Catching Food 9 The Wonderful World Of Plants 10 Nothing Like A Good Weapon At Your Side 11 Get A Rope 12 Show Me Your Pack, Cloths and Tools 12.1 Packs 12.2 Cloths 12.3 Tools 13 Hide and Stalk 14 Prerequisites and Related Skills 15 Skill Progression

Always Be Prepared

When in a survival situation, use your senses of hearing, smell, and sight to get a feel for the environment; determine the pattern of the area and get a feel for what is going on around you. Become familiar with animal and bird noises; movements and the sounds that insects make. If you have any injuries or health problems, attend to those first and remain aware of such things no matter the situation. Keep track of the equipment on hand and be sure it is functional. When you are familiar with these elements, you may then make a plan of survival which includes the basic physical needs of water, food and shelter. Do not act in haste at any point of the survival process else you risk injury, loss of equipment or other mishap that can threaten survival.

Know Where You Are

One of the most important things that cannot be expressed enough is that you know where you are. If you have a map, find your location and relate it to the surrounding terrain. If there are others with you, make sure they also know where they are in relation to the environment. When working in a team, always know who in your group and who has a map and compass, if anyone. In case something happens to the person with the map and/or compass, you will have to get them from him. Always pay close attention to where you are and to where you are going. Do not rely on others to keep track if you are in a group. Constantly orient yourself. Always try to determine how your location relates to that of enemies or dangerous obstacles, potential food and water sources as well as areas that provide good cover and concealment.

Improvise

Improvisation is also key. Learn to improvise. Take a tool designed for a specific purpose and see how many other uses you can make of it. Learn to use nature and the objects it provides for different needs. An example is using a rock for a hammer. No matter how complete a survival kit you have with you, it will run out or wear out after a while so you must be able to replenish it with materials you have access to.

Know Your Natives

Learn about the natives, if there are any. This includes native humanoids as well as animals of a region. Learn how they have adapted to their environment. When and what do they eat? When, where, and how do they get their food? When and where do they go for water? What time do they usually sleep and wake? Animal life in the area can also give you clues on how to survive. Animals require food, water, and shelter just as you do. By watching them, you can find sources of water and food. Do not however rely upon animals as a complete guide to what is safe to eat and drink. Many animals eat things that may be deadly to others. If in a friendly area, one way you can gain rapport with the natives is to show interest in their tools and how they get food and water. By studying the people, you learn to respect them, you often make valuable friends, and, most important, you learn how to adapt to their environment and increase your chances of survival

Keep Your Wits About You

Some people with little or no survival training have managed to survive life-threatening circumstances. Some people with survival training have not used their skills and died. A key part to survival, regardless of where you are or what situation you are in, is the mental attitude of the individual(s) involved. Having survival skills is important but having the will to survive is a necessity. Someone in a survival environment will face many things that can affect their state of mind. These stresses can transform a confident, well-trained person into someone who is indecisive and ineffective and who is less likely to survive in the wilds. That is of course unless they know how to handle such stress. Thus, one must be aware of and be able to recognize the stresses one may encounter during survival. In addition, it is unconditional that you be aware of your reactions to the wide variety of stresses associated with survival. Even minor stressors can become major ones. As the body's resistance to stress wears thin or the stressors grow in strength, exhaustion can ensue. Anticipate potential sources of stress and cope with them before they become unmanageable. Address potential stressors such as injury, illness or possible death, uncertainty and lack of control, troubles of hunger, thirst and isolation before they become deadly.

Plan For It (Survival Kit)

The environment is the key to the types of items you will need in your survival kit. How much equipment you put in your kit depends on how you will carry the kit. A kit carried on your body will have to be smaller than one carried on your horse. Always layer your survival kit, keeping the most important items on your body. For example, your map and/or compass should always be on your body. Carry less important items on your horse or in your wagon. In preparing your survival kit, select items you can use for more than one purpose. If you have two items that will serve the same function, pick the one you can use for another function. Do not duplicate items, as this increases your kit's size and weight.

Your survival kit need not be elaborate. You need only functional items that will meet your needs and a something to hold the items. For the container, you might want to use well crafted pouch or pack. This should be--

• Water repellent if possible.
• Easy to carry or attach to your body.
• Suitable to accept various-sized components.
• Durable.

In your survival kit, you should have--

• Basic first aid items.
• Fire starting equipment.
• Food procurement items.
• Emergency waterskin
• Shelter items.

Some examples of these items are--

• Flint and steel
• Snare wire.
• Small compass.
• Fish and snare line.
• Fishhooks.
• Candle.
• Blanket.
• Needle and thread.
• Knife.

Include a weapon only if the situation so dictates. Consider your personal need and the environment in which your unit will operate. Then prepare your survival kit.

Find Shelter, Get Water, Start A Fire

Shelter

A shelter can protect you from the sun, insects, wind, rain, snow, hot or cold temperatures, and possible enemy observation. It can give you a feeling of well-being. It can help you maintain your will to survive. In some areas, your need for shelter may be more important than your need for food and possibly even your need for water. To find or build a shelter you would have to find trees, caves, a big boulder and dug up ground. To make a shelter you need big woods or rock, rope, leaves, etc. If these materials are not available you can make a huge hole in the ground and cover it up with something. The first thing you should do is to make and shape of form you can fit in with wood and rocks, then put several sticks in a row and tie some leaves on the roof. You could put some thorn bush or/and rocks so it can make some protection from wild animals like the camp fire. The most common error in making a shelter is to make it too large. A shelter must be large enough to protect you. It must also be small enough to contain your body heat, especially in cold climates.

When in a survival situation, realize that shelter is a high priority, start looking for shelter as soon as possible. Two requisites are--

• It must contain material to make the type of shelter you need.
• It must be large enough and level enough for you to lie down comfortably.

When you consider these requisites, however, you cannot ignore your situation or your safety. You must also consider whether the site--

• Provides concealment from hostile humanoid or animal observation.
• Has escape routes.
• Provides protection against wild animals and rocks and dead trees that might fall.
• Is free from insects, reptiles, and poisonous plants.

You must also remember the problems that could arise in your environment. For instance--

• Avoid flash flood areas in foothills.
• Avoid avalanche or rockslide areas in mountainous terrain.
• Avoid sites near bodies of water that are below the high water mark.

In some areas, the season of the year has a strong bearing on the site you select. Ideal sites for a shelter differ in winter and summer. During cold winter months you will want a site that will protect you from the cold and wind, but will have a source of fuel and water. During summer months in the same area you will want a source of water, but you will want the site to be almost insect-free.

When considering shelter site selection, you want to make sure it blends in with the surroundings, has a low silhouette and an irregular shape and is small and secluded.

Water

A lack of water causes dehydration, resulting in fatigue, headaches, dizziness, confusion, and eventually death. Even only having access to small amounts of water impairs concentration, which is dangerous in the wilds where clear thinking is essential. Due to these risks, a safe supply of drinking water must be located shortly after a shelter is built (or even before, depending on conditions). Water can be gathered in a number of ways. A steady source such as a creek or a pond is ideal however water can be gathered from rain and clothing can collect dew from vegetation. Blood is not a suitable substitute for water as it may be diseased. For most humanoids, ingestion of blood brings about a variety of unsuitable elements which is why meat should be cooked whenever possible. For those, more bestial humanoids such as Kelvic, Zith and even Jamoura to name a few, blood may be consumed but serves more as a food than a source of hydration.

A common myth is that cacti can be sliced open to obtain water. While some cacti do have fluid inside, it is not suitable for consumption and would induce vomiting if drunk. Ice or snow may be consumed for water but keep in mind that it takes body heat to warm it often offsets its usefulness. Melting ice is best as it is denser than snow and more water may be gained from it. Also, the milk from green (unripe) coconuts is a good way to quench one’s thirst. However, the milk from mature coconuts contains oil that acts as a laxative. Drink in moderation only. You can even get water from plants with moist pulpy centers. Cut off a section of the plant and squeeze or smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container or suck it straight from the plant or pulp. Plant roots may provide water. Dig or pry the roots out of the ground, cut them into short pieces, and smash the pulp so that the moisture runs out. Catch the liquid in a container. In addition, fleshy leaves, stems, or stalks, such as bamboo, contain water. Cut or notch the stalks at the base of a joint to drain out the liquid.

Fire

The ability to start a fire can make the difference between living and dying. Fire can fulfill many needs. It can provide warmth and comfort. It cooks food and can be used to heat water, sterilize bandages, and provide protection from animals. It can be a mental boost by providing peace of mind and companionship. You can also use fire to produce tools and weapons. Understanding the concept of the fire triangle is very important in correctly constructing and maintaining a fire. The three sides of the triangle represent air, heat, and fuel. If you remove any of these, the fire will go out. The correct ratio of these components is very important for a fire to burn at its greatest capability. The only way to learn this ratio is to practice.

In some situations, you may find that an underground fireplace will best meet your needs. It conceals the fire and serves well for cooking food. To make an underground fireplace or fire hole

• Dig a hole in the ground.
• On the upwind side of this hole, poke or dig a large connecting hole for ventilation.
• Build your fire in the hole

If you are in a snow-covered area, use green logs to make a dry base for your fire. Trees with wrist-sized trunks are easily broken in extreme cold. Cut or break several green logs and lay them side by side on top of the snow. Add one or two more layers. Lay the top layer of logs opposite those below it.

You need three types of materials to build a fire; tinder, kindling, and fuel.

Tinder is dry material that ignites with little heat; a spark starts a fire. The tinder must be absolutely dry to be sure just a spark will ignite it. If you only have something that generates sparks, charred cloth will be almost essential. It holds a spark for long periods, allowing you to put tinder on the hot area to generate a small flame. Make charred cloth by heating cotton cloth until it turns black, but does not burn. Once it is black, you must keep it in a container to keep it dry. If possible, prepare a bit of this cloth whenever time and supply allows so that it is always available. Add it to your individual survival kit.

Kindling is an easily burned material that you add to the burning tinder. Again, this material should be absolutely dry to ensure quick burning. Kindling makes the fire hotter so that it will ignite less easily burned material. Fuel is less burnable material that burns slowly and steadily once ignited.

Examples of Tinder

Shredded bark Wood shavings Dead grass Straw Bird down Lint from clothing Charred cloth Cotton

Examples of Kindling

Small twigs Small strips of wood Wood doused in some form of oil

Examples of Fuel

Dry standing wood Dry dead branches Finely split green wood Dried grasses twisted into bundles Dried animal dung Animal fats

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling, and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the initial heat required to start the tinder burning.

Flint and Steel The direct spark method is the easiest of methods to use and the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of steel. This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread and burst into flames.

Fire-Plow The fire-plow is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.

Bow and Drill The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill is simple, but you must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the following items to use this method:

• Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone with a slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to apply downward pressure.
• Drill. The drill should be a straight, aged hardwood stick about 2 centimeters in diameter and 25 centimeters long. The top end is round and the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
• Fire board. Its size is up to you. An aged softwood board about 2.5 centimeters thick and 10 centimeters wide is preferable. Cut a depression about 2 centimeters from the edge on one side of the board. On the underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the depression.
• Bow. The bow is a strong, sturdy, green stick about 2.5 centimeters in diameter and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the other, without any slack.

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the precut depression on the fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill. Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder, causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.

Need Food Badly

Right behind water, the most urgent requirement is food. Unless the situation occurs in an arid environment, even water, which is more important to maintaining body functions, will almost always follow food in our initial thoughts. One must remember that the three essentials of survival--water, food, and shelter--are prioritized according to the actual situation. Determining which is most important must not only be timely but accurate as well. Some situations may well require shelter to precede both food and water.

Unless you have the chance to take large game, concentrate your efforts on the smaller animals, due to their abundance. The smaller animal species are also easier to prepare. You must not know all the animal species that are suitable as food although it is helpful to know a few. Some are poisonous, and they make a smaller list to remember. What is important is to learn the habits and behavioral patterns of classes of animals. For example, animals that are excellent choices for trapping, those that inhabit a particular range and occupy a den or nest, those that have somewhat fixed feeding areas, and those that have trails leading from one area to another. Larger, herding animals, such as elk or deer, roam vast areas and are somewhat more difficult to trap. Also, you must understand the food choices of a particular species.

You can, with relatively few exceptions, eat anything that crawls, swims, walks, or flies. The first obstacle is overcoming your natural aversion to a particular food source. Understand that in starvation situations, many have resorted to eating everything imaginable for nourishment. A person who ignores an otherwise healthy food source due to a personal bias, or because he feels it is unappetizing, is risking his own survival. Although it may prove difficult at first, a good survivor must eat what is available to maintain his health.

Insects The most abundant life-form anywhere, insects are easily caught. Insects to avoid include all adults that sting or bite, hairy or brightly colored insects, and caterpillars and insects that have a pungent odor. Also avoid spiders and common disease carriers such as ticks, flies, and mosquitoes. Rotting logs lying on the ground are excellent places to look for a variety of insects. Do not overlook insect nests on or in the ground. Grassy areas, such as fields, are good areas to search because the insects can be seen easily. Stones or other materials lying on the ground provide the insects with good nesting sites. Check these sites. Insect larvae are also edible. Remove any wings and barbed legs that are found. You can eat most insects raw. The taste varies from one species to another. Wood grubs are bland, while some species of ants store honey in their bodies, giving them a sweet taste. You can grind a collection of insects into a paste. You can mix them with edible vegetation. You can cook them to improve their taste.

Worms Worms are an excellent source of food. Dig for them in damp soil or watch for them on the ground after a rain. After capturing them, drop them into clean, potable water for a few minutes. The worms will naturally purge or wash themselves out, after which you can eat them raw.

Marine Life Freshwater shrimp can form rather large colonies in mats of floating algae or in mud bottoms of ponds and lakes.

Crayfish are related to marine lobsters and crabs. You can distinguish them by their hard exoskeleton and five pairs of legs, the front pair having oversized pincers. Crayfish are active during the night, but you can locate them during the day by looking under and around stones in streams. You can also find them by looking in the soft mud near the chimneylike breathing holes of their nests. You can catch crayfish by tying bits of offal or internal organs to a string. When the crayfish grabs the bait, pull it to shore before it has a chance to release the bait. In an emergency when you are without tools, you may also risk sticking your finger into the breathing hole of the nest and wait for the crayfish to grab hold, then pull it out before it releases that hold. You find saltwater lobsters, crabs, and shrimp from the surf's edge out to water 10 meters deep. Shrimp may come to light, perhaps a torch, in the darkening where you can scoop them up with a net. You can catch lobsters and crabs with a baited trap or a baited hook. Crabs will come to bait placed at the edge of the surf, where you can trap or net them. Lobsters and crabs are nocturnal and caught best at night.

One can also find creatures such as octopuses and shellfish such as snails, clams, mussels, bivalves, barnacles, periwinkles, chitons, and sea urchins. These can make for suitable food sources if they are available. Check the tidal areas when the tide has receded. These particular creatures can be found trapped in the small pools nested in the exposed rocks of the tidal zone.

Fish represent a good source of protein and fat. They offer some distinct advantages. They are usually more abundant than land-based wildlife, and the ways to get them are silent. To be successful at catching fish, you must know their habits. For instance, fish tend to feed heavily before a storm. Fish are not likely to feed after a storm when the water is muddy and swollen. Light often attracts fish at night. When there is a heavy current, fish will rest in places where there is an eddy, such as near rocks. Fish will also gather where there are deep pools, under overhanging brush, and in and around submerged foliage, logs, or other objects that offer them shelter. Be aware of those fish which are either poisonous or possess special defensive measures as these may hamper one’s ability to survive rather than aiding it.

Amphibians Frogs and salamanders are easily found around bodies of fresh water. Frogs seldom move from the safety of the water's edge. At the first sign of danger, they plunge into the water and bury themselves in the mud and debris. There are few poisonous species of frogs so be aware of those possessing bright colors as it is often a sign of danger. Do not confuse toads with frogs. You normally find toads in drier environments. Several species of toads secrete a poisonous substance through their skin as a defense against attack. Therefore, to avoid poisoning, do not handle or eat toads. Salamanders are nocturnal. The best time to catch them is at night using a light. They can range in size from a few centimeters to well over 60 centimeters in length and sometimes more in the case of giant salamanders. Look in water around rocks and mud banks for salamanders.

Reptiles Reptiles are a good protein source and relatively easy to catch. You should cook them, but in an emergency, you can eat them raw. Poisonous snakes, alligators, crocodiles, and large sea turtles along with any reptile that is either too large to catch easily or possesses certain defenses present obvious hazards.

Birds Nearly all species of birds are edible, although the flavor will vary considerably. You may skin fish-eating birds to improve their taste. As with any wild animal, you must understand birds' common habits to have a realistic chance of capturing them. You can take pigeons, as well as some other species, from their roost at night by hand. During the nesting season, some species will not leave the nest even when approached. Knowing where and when the birds nest makes catching them easier. Birds tend to have regular flyways going from the roost to a feeding area, to water, and so forth. Careful observation should reveal where these flyways are and indicate good areas for catching birds in nets stretched across the flyways. Roosting sites and waterholes are some of the most promising areas for trapping or snaring.

Nesting birds present another food source--eggs. Remove all but two or three eggs from the clutch, marking the ones that you leave. The bird will continue to lay more eggs to fill the clutch. Continue removing the fresh eggs, leaving the ones you marked.

Mammals Mammals are excellent food source. There are some drawbacks to obtaining mammals. The amount of injury an animal can inflict is in direct proportion to its size. All mammals have teeth and nearly all will bite in self-defense. Even a squirrel can inflict a serious wound and any bite presents a serious risk of infection. Any animal with no route of escape will fight when cornered.

Snares And Catching Food

For an unarmed survivor or evader, trapping or snaring wild game is a necessity for getting food. Several well-placed traps have the potential to catch a good amount of game and keep one fed for some time. To be effective with any type of trap or snare, you must--

• Be familiar with the species of animal you intend to catch.
• Be capable of constructing a proper trap.
• Not alarm the prey by leaving signs of your presence.

There are no catchall traps you can set for all animals. You must determine what species are in a given area and set your traps specifically with those animals in mind. Look for the following:

• Runs and trails.
• Tracks.
• Droppings.
• Chewed or rubbed vegetation.
• Nesting or roosting sites.
• Feeding and watering areas.

Position your traps and snares where there is proof that animals pass through. You must determine if it is a "run" or a "trail." A trail will show signs of use by several species and will be rather distinct. A run is usually smaller and less distinct and will only contain signs of one species. You may construct a perfect snare, but it will not catch anything if haphazardly placed in the woods. Animals have bedding areas, waterholes, and feeding areas with trails leading from one to another. You must place snares and traps around these areas to be effective.

If you happen to be in a hostile environment, trap and snare concealment is important. It is equally important, however, not to create a disturbance that will alarm the animal and cause it to avoid the trap. Therefore, if you must dig, remove all fresh dirt from the area. Most animals will instinctively avoid a pitfall-type trap. Prepare the various parts of a trap or snare away from the site, carry them in, and set them up. Such actions make it easier to avoid disturbing the local vegetation, thereby alerting the prey. Do not use freshly cut, live vegetation to construct a trap or snare. Freshly cut vegetation will "bleed" sap that has an odor the prey will be able to smell. It is an alarm signal to the animal. You must remove or mask the humanoid scent on and around the trap you set. Although birds do not have a developed sense of smell, nearly all mammals depend on smell even more than on sight. Even the slightest humanoid scent on a trap will alarm the prey and cause it to avoid the area. Actually removing the scent from a trap is difficult but masking it is relatively easy. Use the fluid from the gall and urine bladders of previous kills. Do not use your own urine. Mud, particularly from an area with plenty of rotting vegetation, is also good. Use it to coat your hands when handling the trap and to coat the trap when setting it. In nearly all parts of the world, animals know the smell of burned vegetation and smoke. It is only when a fire is actually burning that they become alarmed.

Therefore, smoking the trap parts is an effective means to mask your scent. If one of the above techniques is not practical, and if time permits, allow a trap to weather for a few days and then set it. Do not handle a trap while it is weathering. When you position the trap, camouflage it as naturally as possible to prevent detection by the enemy and to avoid alarming the prey. Traps or snares placed on a trail or run should use channelization. To build a channel, construct a funnel-shaped barrier extending from the sides of the trail toward the trap, with the narrowest part nearest the trap. Channelization should be inconspicuous to avoid alerting the prey. As the animal gets to the trap, it cannot turn left or right and continues into the trap. Few wild animals will back up, preferring to face the direction of travel. Channelization does not have to be an impassable barrier. You only have to make it inconvenient for the animal to go over or through the barrier. For best effect, the channelization should reduce the trail's width to just slightly wider than the targeted animal's body. Maintain this constriction at least as far back from the trap as the animal's body length, then begin the widening toward the mouth of the funnel.

Use of Bait Baiting a trap or snare increases your chances of catching an animal. When catching fish, you must bait nearly all the devices. Success with an unbaited trap depends on its placement in a good location. A baited trap can actually draw animals to it. The bait should be something the animal knows. This bait, however, should not be so readily available in the immediate area that the animal can get it close by. For example, baiting a trap with corn in the middle of a corn field would not be likely to work. Likewise, if corn is not grown in the region, a corn-baited trap may arouse an animal's curiosity and keep it alerted while it ponders the strange food. Under such circumstances it may not go for the bait. Salt is one example of good bait. When using such baits, scatter bits of it around the trap to give the prey a chance to sample it and develop a craving for it. The animal will then overcome some of its caution before it gets to the trap.

If you set and bait a trap for one species but another species takes the bait without being caught, try to determine what the animal was. Then set a proper trap for that animal, using the same bait.

Trap and Snare Construction Traps and snares crush, choke, hang, or entangle the prey. A single trap or snare will commonly incorporate two or more of these principles. The mechanisms that provide power to the trap are almost always very simple. The struggling victim, weight and balance, or a bent sapling's tension provides the power.

The heart of any trap or snare is the trigger. When planning a trap or snare, ask yourself how it should affect the prey, what is the source of power, and what will be the most efficient trigger. This will help you come up with a specific trap for a specific species. Traps are designed to catch and hold or to catch and kill. Snares are traps that incorporate a noose to accomplish either function. Listed below are some example snares. Keep in mind that these are only a few as there are numerous ways of constructing snares.

Simple Snare A simple snare consists of a noose placed over a trail or den hole and attached to a firmly planted stake. If the noose is some type of cordage placed upright on a game trail, use small twigs or blades of grass to hold it up. Filaments from spider webs are excellent for holding nooses open. Make sure the noose is large enough to pass freely over the animal's head. As the animal continues to move, the noose tightens around its neck. The more the animal struggles, the tighter the noose gets. This type of snare usually does not kill the animal. If you use cordage, it may loosen enough to slip off the animal's neck. Wire is therefore the best choice for a simple snare.

Drag Noose Use a drag noose on an animal run. Place forked sticks on either side of the run and lay a sturdy crossmember across them. Tie the noose to the crossmember and hang it at a height above the animal's head. (Nooses designed to catch by the head should never be low enough for the prey to step into with a foot.) As the noose tightens around the animal's neck, the animal pulls the crossmember from the forked sticks and drags it along. The surrounding vegetation quickly catches the crossmember and the animal becomes entangled.

Twitch-Up Snare A simple twitch-up snare uses two forked sticks, each with a long and short leg. Bend the twitch-up and mark the trail below it. Drive the long leg of one forked stick firmly into the ground at that point. Ensure the cut on the short leg of this stick is parallel to the ground. Tie the long leg of the remaining forked stick to a piece of cordage secured to the twitch-up. Cut the short leg so that it catches on the short leg of the other forked stick. Extend a noose over the trail. Set the trap by bending the twitch-up and engaging the short legs of the forked sticks. When an animal catches its head in the noose, it pulls the forked sticks apart, allowing the twitch-up to spring up and hang the prey.

Squirrel Pole A squirrel pole is a long pole placed against a tree in an area showing a lot of squirrel activity. Place several wire nooses along the top and sides of the pole so that a squirrel trying to go up or down the pole will have to pass through one or more of them. Position the nooses (5 to 6 centimeters in diameter) about 2.5 centimeters off the pole. Place the top and bottom wire nooses 45 centimeters from the top and bottom of the pole to prevent the squirrel from getting its feet on a solid surface. If this happens, the squirrel will chew through the wire. Squirrels are naturally curious. After an initial period of caution, they will try to go up or down the pole and will get caught in a noose. The struggling animal will soon fall from the pole and strangle. Other squirrels will soon follow and, in this way, you can catch several squirrels. You can emplace multiple poles to increase the catch.

Noosing Wand A noose stick or "noosing wand" is useful for capturing roosting birds or small mammals. It requires a patient operator. This wand is more a weapon than a trap. It consists of a pole (as long as you can effectively handle) with a slip noose of wire or stiff cordage at the small end. To catch an animal, you slip the noose over the neck of a roosting bird and pull it tight. You can also place it over a den hole and hide in a nearby blind. When the animal emerges from the den, you jerk the pole to tighten the noose and thus capture the animal. Carry a stout club to kill the prey.

The Wonderful World Of Plants

After having solved the problems of finding water, shelter, and animal food, you will have to consider the use of plants you can eat. While surviving in the wilds you should always be on the lookout for familiar wild foods and live off the land whenever possible.

Even in the most mundane conditions, maintaining health through a complete and well planned diet is necessary to maintaining strength and peace of mind. Nature can provide you with food that will let you survive for quite some time, if you don't eat the wrong plant. You must therefore learn as much as possible beforehand about the flora of the region where you will be operating. Plants can provide you with medicines. Plants can supply you with weapons and raw materials to construct shelters and build fires. Plants can even provide you with the ability to poison fish, preserving animal hides, and for camouflaging yourself and your equipment.

Always identify plants before using them as food. Learn as much as possible about plants you intend to use for food and their unique characteristics. Some plants have both edible and poisonous parts. Many are edible only at certain times of the year. Others may have poisonous relatives that look very similar to the ones you can eat or use for medicine.

At times you may find yourself in a situation for which you could not plan. In this instance you may not have had the chance to learn the plant life of the region in which you must survive. In this case you can use a basic test of the plants to determine which plants you can eat and those to avoid.

The Test There are many plants throughout the land. Tasting or swallowing even a small portion of some can cause severe discomfort and even death. Therefore, if you have the slightest doubt about a plant's edibility, apply this basic test before eating any portion of it. Before testing a plant for edibility, make sure there are enough plants to it all worthwhile. Each part of a plant (roots, leaves, flowers, and so on) requires about a day to test. Do not waste time testing a plant that is not relatively abundant in the area. Remember, eating large portions of plant food on an empty stomach may cause diarrhea, nausea, or cramps. Even after testing plant food and finding it safe, eat it in moderation. You can see from the steps and time involved in testing for edibility just how important it is to be able to identify edible plants.

To avoid potentially poisonous plants, stay away from any wild or unknown plants that have--

• Milky or discolored sap.
• Beans, bulbs, or seeds inside pods.
• Bitter or soapy taste.
• Spines, fine hairs, or thorns.
• Dill, carrot, parsnip, or parsleylike foliage.
• "Almond" scent in woody parts and leaves.
• Grain heads with pink, purplish, or black spurs.
• Three-leaved growth pattern.

Eliminating plants based on the above list of criteria may cause you to avoid plants that could have been edible. More important, these criteria will often help you avoid plants that are potentially poisonous if eaten or even touched.

An entire encyclopedia of edible wild plants could be written. Learn as much as possible about the plant life of the areas where you train regularly and where you expect to be traveling or living. Seek out a plant guide for assistance. One plant you should never overlook is seaweed. It is a form of marine algae found on or near ocean shores. There are also some freshwater varieties that can be eaten as well. Large quantities of seaweed in an unaccustomed stomach can produce a severe laxative effect which goes without saying that eating too much could be rather unpleasant. When gathering seaweeds for food, find living plants attached to rocks or floating free. Seaweed washed onshore any length of time may be spoiled or decayed. You can dry freshly harvested seaweeds for later use. Its preparation for eating depends on the type of seaweed. You can dry thin and tender varieties in the sun or over a fire until crisp. Crush and add these to soups or broths. Boil thick, leathery seaweeds for a short time to soften them. Eat them as a vegetable or with other foods. You can eat some varieties raw after testing for edibility.

Preparation of Plant Food Although some plants or plant parts can be eaten raw, you must cook others to be edible or palatable. Edible means that a plant or food will provide you with what is necessary to survive, while palatable means that it actually is pleasing to eat. Many wild plants are edible but barely palatable. It is a good idea to learn to identify, prepare, and eat wild foods. Methods used to improve the taste of plant food include soaking, boiling, cooking, or leaching. Leaching is done by crushing the food (for example, acorns), placing it in a strainer, and pouring boiling water through it or immersing it in running water.

Boil leaves, stems, and buds until tender, changing the water, if necessary, to remove any bitterness. Boil, or roast tubers and roots. Leach acorns in water, if necessary, to remove the bitterness. Some nuts, such as chestnuts, are good raw, but taste better roasted. You can eat many grains and seeds raw until they mature. When hard or dry, you may have to boil or grind them into meal or flour. The sap from many trees, contains sugar. You may boil these saps down to a syrup for sweetening.

Make dyes from various plants to color clothing or to camouflage your skin. Usually, you will have to boil the plants to get the best results. Onion skins produce yellow, walnut hulls produce brown, and pokeberries provide a purple dye. Make fibers and cordage from plant fibers. Most commonly used are the stems from nettles and milkweeds, yucca plants, and the inner bark of trees like the linden. Make fish poison by immersing walnut hulls in a small area of quiet water. This poison makes it impossible for the fish to breathe but doesn't adversely affect their edibility. This is a very useful method.

Make tinder for starting fires from cattail fluff, cedar bark, lighter knot wood from pine trees, or hardened sap from resinous wood trees. Make insulation by fluffing up female cattail heads or milkweed down. Make insect repellents by applying the expressed juice of wild garlic or onion to the skin, by placing sassafras leaves in your shelter, or by burning or smudging cattail seed hair fibers.

Medicine In surviving the wilds, you will have to use what is available. In using plants and other natural remedies, positive identification of the plants involved is as critical as in using them for food. Proper use of these plants is equally important. Note that this is just a general guide and that more information on specific plants and their benefits will be needed to get the most out of their medicinal uses. The following terms and definitions are associated with medicinal plant use.

• Poultice. The name given to crushed leaves or other plant parts, possibly heated, that you apply to a wound or sore either directly or wrapped in cloth or paper.
• Infusion or tisane or tea. The preparation of medicinal herbs for internal or external application. You place a small quantity of a herb in a container, pour hot water over it, and let it steep (covered or uncovered) before use.
• Decoction. The extract of a boiled down or simmered herb leaf or root. You add herb leaf or root to water. You bring them to a sustained boil or simmer to draw their chemicals into the water. The average ratio is about 28 to 56 grams (1 to 2 ounces) of herb to 0.5 liter of water.
• Expressed juice. Liquids or saps squeezed from plant material and either applied to the wound or made into another medicine.

Nothing Like A Good Weapon At Your Side

In survival situations, you may have to fashion any number and type expedient tools and equipment to survive. Examples of tools and equipment that could make your life much easier are ropes, rucksacks, clothes, nets, and so on.

Weapons serve a dual purpose. You use them to obtain and prepare food and to provide self-defense. A weapon can also give you a feeling of security and provide you with the ability to hunt on the move.

Clubs You hold clubs, you do not throw them. As a expedient weapon, the club does not offer much in the way of combat however in the wilds it can be rather useful. It can extend your area of defense beyond your fingertips. It also serves to increase the force of a blow without injuring yourself. There are three basic types of clubs. They are the simple, weighted, and sling club.

Simple Club A simple club is a staff or branch. It must be short enough for you to swing easily, but long enough and strong enough for you to damage whatever you hit. Its diameter should fit comfortably in your palm, but it should not be so thin as to allow the club to break easily upon impact. A straight-grained hardwood is best if such material is available.

Weighted Club A weighted club is any simple club with a weight on one end. The weight may be a natural weight, such as a knot on the wood, or something added, such as a stone lashed to the club. It often resembles a blunt axe. To make a weighted club, first find a stone that has a shape that will allow you to lash it securely to the club. A stone with a slight hourglass shape works well. If you cannot find a suitably shaped stone, you must fashion a groove or channel into the stone by a technique known as pecking. By repeatedly rapping the club stone with a smaller hard stone, you can get the desired shape. Next, find a piece of wood that is the right length for you. A straight-grained hardwood is best. The length of the wood should feel comfortable in relation to the weight of the stone. Finally, lash the stone to the handle.

There are three techniques for lashing the stone to the handle: split handle, forked branch, and wrapped handle. The technique you use will depend on the type of handle you choose..

Sling Club A sling club is another type of weighted club. A weight hangs 8 to 10 centimeters from the handle by a strong, flexible lashing. This type of club both extends the user's reach and multiplies the force of the blow.

Edged Weapons Knives, spear blades, and arrow points fall under the category of edged weapons. The following will discuss the making of such weapons.

Knives A knife has three basic functions. It can puncture, slash or chop, and cut. A knife is also an invaluable tool used to construct other survival items. You may find yourself without a knife or you may need another type knife or a spear. To improvise you can use stone, bone, wood, or metal to make a knife or spear blade.

Stone To make a stone knife, you will need a sharp-edged piece of stone, a chipping tool, and a flaking tool. A chipping tool is a light, blunt-edged tool used to break off small pieces of stone. A flaking tool is a pointed tool used to break off thin, flattened pieces of stone. You can make a chipping tool from wood, bone, or metal, and a flaking tool from bone, antler tines, or soft iron if such material is available.

Start making the knife by roughing out the desired shape on your sharp piece of stone, using the chipping tool. Try to make the knife fairly thin. Then, using the flaking tool, press it against the edges. This action will cause flakes to come off the opposite side of the edge, leaving a razor sharp edge. Use the flaking tool along the entire length of the edge you need to sharpen. Eventually, you will have a very sharp cutting edge that you can use as a knife.

Lash the blade to some type of hilt.

Note: Stone will make an excellent puncturing tool and a good chopping tool but will not hold a fine edge. Some stones such as chert or flint can have very fine edges.

Bone You can also use bone as an effective expedient edged weapon. First, you will need to select a suitable bone. The larger bones, such as the leg bone of a deer or another medium-sized animal, are best. Lay the bone upon another hard object. Shatter the bone by hitting it with a heavy object, such as a rock. From the pieces, select a suitable pointed splinter. You can further shape and sharpen this splinter by rubbing it on a rough-surfaced rock. If the piece is too small to handle, you can still use it by adding a handle to it. Select a suitable piece of hardwood for a handle and lash the bone splinter securely to it.

Note: Use the bone knife only to puncture. It will not hold an edge and it may flake or break if used differently.

Wood You can make expedient edged weapons from wood. Use these only to puncture. Bamboo is the only wood that will hold a suitable edge. To make a knife using wood, first select a straight-grained piece of hardwood that is about 30 centimeters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter. Fashion the blade about 15 centimeters long. Shave it down to a point. Use only the straight-grained portions of the wood. Do not use the core or pith, as it would make a weak point.

Harden the point by a process known as fire hardening. If a fire is possible, dry the blade portion over the fire slowly until lightly charred. The drier the wood, the harder the point. After lightly charring the blade portion, sharpen it on a coarse stone. If using bamboo and after fashioning the blade, remove any other wood to make the blade thinner from the inside portion of the bamboo. Removal is done this way because bamboo's hardest part is its outer layer. Keep as much of this layer as possible to ensure the hardest blade possible. When charring bamboo over a fire, char only the inside wood; do not char the outside.

Metal Metal is the best material to make expedient edged weapons. Metal, when properly designed, can fulfill a knife's three uses--puncture, slice or chop, and cut. First, select a suitable piece of metal, one that most resembles the desired end product. Depending on the size and original shape, you can obtain a point and cutting edge by rubbing the metal on a rough-surfaced stone. If the metal is soft enough, you can hammer out one edge while the metal is cold. Use a suitable flat, hard surface as an anvil and a smaller, harder object of stone or metal as a hammer to hammer out the edge. Make a knife handle from wood, bone, or other material that will protect your hand. Obviously in the wilds, such a material is often very difficult to come by but you never know what you may stumble upon.

Other Materials You can use other materials to produce edged weapons. Glass is a good alternative to an edged weapon or tool, if no other material is available. Obtain a suitable piece in the same manner as described for bone. Glass has a natural edge but is less durable for heavy work. You can also sharpen plastic--if it is thick enough or hard enough--into a durable point for puncturing. This may also be as difficult to come upon as metal but knowing it its possible uses can be quite beneficial.

Spear Blades To make spears, use the same procedures to make the blade that you used to make a knife blade. Then select a shaft (a straight sapling) 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. The length should allow you to handle the spear easily and effectively. Attach the spear blade to the shaft using lashing. The preferred method is to split the handle, insert the blade, then wrap or lash it tightly. You can use other materials without adding a blade. Select a 1.2-to 1.5-meter long straight hardwood shaft and shave one end to a point. If possible, fire harden the point. Bamboo also makes an excellent spear. Select a piece 1.2 to 1.5 meters long. Starting 8 to 10 centimeters back from the end used as the point, shave down the end at a 45-degree angle. Remember, to sharpen the edges, shave only the inner portion.

Arrow Points To make an arrow point, use the same procedures for making a stone knife blade. Chert, flint, and shell-type stones are best for arrow points. You can fashion bone like stone--by flaking. You can make an efficient arrow point using broken glass.

Other Weapons

You can make other expedient weapons such as the throwing stick, archery equipment, and the bola.

Throwing Stick The throwing stick, commonly known as the rabbit stick, is very effective against small game (squirrels, chipmunks, and rabbits). The rabbit stick itself is a blunt stick, naturally curved at about a 45-degree angle. Select a stick with the desired angle from heavy hardwood such as oak. Shave off two opposite sides so that the stick is flat like a boomerang. You must practice the throwing technique for accuracy and speed. First, align the target by extending the non-throwing arm in line with the mid to lower section of the target. Slowly and repeatedly raise the throwing arm up and back until the throwing stick crosses the back at about a 45-degree angle or is in line with the non-throwing hip. Bring the throwing arm forward until it is just slightly above and parallel to the non-throwing arm. This will be the throwing stick's release point. Practice slowly and repeatedly to attain accuracy.

Bow and Arrow A good bow is the result of many hours of work. You can construct a suitable short-term bow fairly easily. When it loses its spring or breaks, you can replace it. Select a hardwood stick about one meter long that is free of knots or limbs. Carefully scrape the large end down until it has the same pull as the small end. Careful examination will show the natural curve of the stick. Always scrape from the side that faces you, or the bow will break the first time you pull it. Dead, dry wood is preferable to green wood. To increase the pull, lash a second bow to the first, front to front, forming an "X" when viewed from the side. Attach the tips of the bows with cordage and only use a bowstring on one bow.

Select arrows from the straightest dry sticks available. The arrows should be about half as long as the bow. Scrape each shaft smooth all around. You will probably have to straighten the shaft. You can bend an arrow straight by heating the shaft over hot coals. Do not allow the shaft to scorch or bum. Hold the shaft straight until it cools.

You can make arrowheads from bone, glass, metal, or pieces of rock. You can also sharpen and fire harden the end of the shaft. To fire harden wood, hold it over hot coals, being careful not to bum or scorch the wood. You must notch the ends of the arrows for the bowstring. Cut or file the notch; do not split it. Fletching (adding feathers to the notched end of an arrow) improves the arrow's flight characteristics, but is not necessary on a field-expedient arrow.

Sling You can make a sling by tying two pieces of cordage, about sixty centimeters long, at opposite ends of a palm-sized piece of leather or cloth. Place a rock in the cloth and wrap one cord around the middle finger and hold in your palm. Hold the other cord between the forefinger and thumb. To throw the rock, spin the sling several times in a circle and release the cord between the thumb and forefinger. Practice to gain proficiency. The sling is very effective against small game.

Get A Rope

Many materials are strong enough for use as lashing and cordage. A number of natural and materials are available in a survival situation. For example, you can make a cotton web belt much more useful by unraveling it. You can then use the string for other purposes (fishing line, thread for sewing, and lashing).

Cordage Selection Before making cordage, there are a few simple tests you can do to determine you material's suitability. First, pull on a length of the material to test for strength. Next, twist it between your fingers and roll the fibers together. If it withstands this handling and does not snap apart, tie an overhand knot with the fibers and gently tighten. If the knot does not break, the material is usable.

The best natural material for lashing small objects is sinew. You can make sinew from the tendons of large game, such as deer. Remove the tendons from the game and dry them completely. Smash the dried tendons so that they separate into fibers. Moisten the fibers and twist them into a continuous strand. If you need stronger lashing material, you can braid the strands. When you use sinew for small lashings, you do not need knots as the moistened sinew is sticky and it hardens when dry.

You can shred and braid plant fibers from the inner bark of some trees to make cord. You can use the linden, elm, hickory, white oak, mulberry, chestnut, and red and white cedar trees. After you make the cord, test it to be sure it is strong enough for your purpose. You can make these materials stronger by braiding several strands together.

You can use rawhide for larger lashing jobs. Make rawhide from the skins of medium or large game. After skinning the animal, remove any excess fat and any pieces of meat from the skin. Dry the skin completely. You do not need to stretch it as long as there are no folds to trap moisture. You do not have to remove the hair from the skin. Cut the skin while it is dry. Make cuts about 6 millimeters wide. Start from the center of the hide and make one continuous circular cut, working clockwise to the hide's outer edge. Soak the rawhide for 2 to 4 hours or until it is soft. Use it wet, stretching it as much as possible while applying it. It will be strong and durable when it dries.

Show Me Your Pack, Cloths and Tools

Packs

The materials for constructing a rucksack or pack are almost limitless. You can use wood, bamboo, rope, plant fiber, clothing, animal skins, canvas, and many other materials to make a pack.

There are several construction techniques for rucksacks. Many are very elaborate, but those that are simple and easy are often the most readily made in a survival situation.

Horseshoe Pack This pack is simple to make and use and relatively comfortable to carry over one shoulder. Lay available square-shaped material, such as poncho, blanket, or canvas, flat on the ground. Lay items on one edge of the material. Pad the hard items. Roll the material (with the items) toward the opposite edge and tie both ends securely. Add extra ties along the length of the bundle. You can drape the pack over one shoulder with a line connecting the two ends

Square Pack This pack is easy to construct if rope or cordage is readily available. Otherwise, you must first make cordage. To make this pack, construct a square frame from bamboo, limbs, or sticks. Size will vary for each person and the amount of equipment carried. The frame will look like a box frame of sorts. The frame is tied together with rope or cordage at the points where the limbs, sticks, etc. meet. Then with more cordage, attach each strand about 2.5 centimeters apart both vertically and horizontally. The horizontal lines should weave between the vertical ones.

Cloths

Animal Skins The selection of animal skins in a survival situation will most often be limited to what you manage to trap or hunt. However, if there is an abundance of wildlife, select the hides of larger animals with heavier coats and large fat content. Do not use the skins of infected or diseased animals if at all possible. Since they live in the wild, animals are carriers of pests such as ticks, lice, and fleas. Because of these pests, use water to thoroughly clean any skin obtained from any animal. If water is not available, at least shake out the skin thoroughly. As with rawhide, lay out the skin, and remove all fat and meat. Dry the skin completely. Use the hind quarter joint areas to make shoes and mittens or socks. Wear the hide with the fur to the inside for its insulating factor.

Plant Fibers Several plants are sources of insulation from cold. Cattail is a marshland plant found along lakes, ponds, and the backwaters of rivers. The fuzz on the tops of the stalks forms dead air spaces and makes a good down-like insulation when placed between two pieces of material. Milkweed has pollenlike seeds that act as good insulation. The husk fibers from coconuts are very good for weaving ropes and, when dried, make excellent tinder and insulation.

Tools

Bowls Use wood, bone, horn, bark, or other similar material to make bowls. To make wooden bowls, use a hollowed out piece of wood that will hold your food and enough water to cook it in. Hang the wooden container over the fire and add hot rocks to the water and food. Remove the rocks as they cool and add more hot rocks until your food is cooked.

A section of bamboo works very well, if you cut out a section between two sealed joints.

Do not use rocks with air pockets, such as limestone and sandstone. They may explode while heating in the fire.

Forks, Knives, and Spoons Carve forks, knives, and spoons from nonresinous woods so that you do not get a wood resin aftertaste or do not taint the food. Nonresinous woods include oak, birch, and other hardwood trees.

Pots You can make pots from turtle shells or wood. As described with bowls, using hot rocks in a hollowed out piece of wood is very effective. Bamboo is the best wood for making cooking containers.

To use turtle shells, first thoroughly boil the upper portion of the shell. Then use it to heat food and water over a flame.

Waterskins Make waterskins from the stomachs of larger animals. Thoroughly flush the stomach out with water, then tie off the bottom. Leave the top open, with some means of fastening it closed.

Hide and Stalk

When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes are particular to humanoids. Many animals will recognize these shapes as can hostile persons. The shape of a hat, helmet, or black boots can give you away. Animals know and run from the shape of a humanoid silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of vegetation from the surrounding area in your uniform, equipment, and headgear. Try to reduce any shine from skin or equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colors and simulate the texture of your surroundings.

Shape and Outline Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying vegetation or strips of cloth onto them. Make sure the added camouflage does not hinder the equipment's operation. When hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with leaves, grass, or other local debris. Conceal any signaling devices you have prepared, but keep them ready for use.

Color and Texture Each area of the world and each climatic condition (arctic/winter, temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) have color patterns and textures that are natural for that area. While color is self-explanatory, texture defines the surface characteristics of something when looking at it. For example, surface textures may be smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible combinations. Use color and texture together to camouflage yourself effectively. It makes little sense to cover yourself with dead, brown vegetation in the middle of a large grassy field. Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green grass in the middle of a desert or rocky area.

To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of the world, you must take on the color and texture of the immediate surroundings. Use available materials to camouflage yourself. Charcoal from burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of cloth or burlap, pine boughs, and nature-colored clothing are a few examples.

Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck, and ears. Use charcoal, or mud to camouflage yourself. Cover with a darker color areas that stick out more and catch more light (forehead, nose, cheekbones, chin, and ears). Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded areas (around the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colors. Be sure to use an irregular pattern. Attach vegetation from the area or strips of cloth of the proper color to clothing and equipment. If you use vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As you move through an area, be alert to the color changes and modify your camouflage colors as necessary.

Shine As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Worn equipment can be shiny. Even painted objects, if smooth, may shine. Glass objects such as mirrors or spectacles shine. You must cover these glass objects when not in use. Anything that shines automatically attracts attention and will give away your presence. Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage. Skin oil will wash off camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you must wear spectacles, camouflage them by applying a thin layer of dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will reduce the reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or plants. Pay particular attention to covering buckles on equipment, jewelry, or uniform insignia.

Shadow When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the shadows. The outer edges of the shadows are lighter and the deeper parts are darker. Remember, if you are in an area where there is plenty of vegetation, keep as much vegetation between you and a potential enemy or game as possible. This action will make it very hard for them to see you as the vegetation will partially mask you from his view. When encountering hostiles, forcing an enemy to look through many layers of masking vegetation will fatigue his eyes very quickly. When traveling, especially in built-up areas during the darkening, be aware of where you cast your shadow. It may extend out around the comer of a rock or tree and give away your position. Also, if you are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one side, your silhouette can be seen against the light.

Movement Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If at all possible, avoid movement in the presence of an enemy or game. If danger appears imminent in your present location and you must move, move away slowly, making as little noise as possible. By moving slowly, you decrease the chance of detection and conserve energy that you may need for long-term survival or long-distance evasion. When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you must climb over an obstacle, keep your body level with its top to avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not silhouette yourself against the skyline when crossing hills or ridges. When you are moving, you will have difficulty detecting the movement of others. Stop frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of hostile movement.

Noise Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of loud noises such as several snapping twigs. If possible, avoid making any noise at all. Slow down your pace as much as necessary to avoid making noise when moving around or away from possible threats. Use background noises to cover the noise of your movement. Sounds of birds, strong winds and falling water will cover some or all the sounds produced by your movement. Rain will mask a lot of movement noise, but it also reduces your ability to detect noise as well.

Scent Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is always wise to camouflage the scent associated with humanoids. Start by washing yourself and your clothes without using soap. This washing method removes soap and body odors. Avoiding strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odors. You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and your clothing, to rub on your body and clothing, or to chew on to camouflage your breath. Pine needles, mint, or any similar aromatic plant will help camouflage your scent from both animals and hostiles. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your scent from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a fire, older smoke scents are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.

While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or avoid humanoids. Pay attention to smells associated with humanoids, such as fire, perfumes and food. Such smells may alert you to their presence long before you can see or hear them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note the wind's direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on the downwind side when nearing humanoids or animals. Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location. You need more than just camouflage to make these moves successfully. The ability to stalk or move without making any sudden quick movement or loud noise is essential to avoiding detection.

You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the following techniques when practicing.

Upright Stalking Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in the upright position. Such strides help you to maintain your balance. You should be able to stop at any point in that movement and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl the toes up out of the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the ball of the foot touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may snap when you place your weight on them. If you start to step on one, lift your foot and move it. After making contact with the outside edge of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside ball of your foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then gradually shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to about knee height and start the process over again. Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid waving them about or hitting vegetation. When moving in a crouch, you gain extra support by placing your hands on your knees. One step usually takes 1 minute to complete, but the time it takes will depend on the situation.

Crawling Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to allow you to walk upright without being seen. Move one limb at a time and be sure to set it down softly, feeling for anything that may snap and make noise. Be careful that your toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

Prone Staking To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified push-up on your hands and toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and then lowering yourself again slowly. Avoid dragging and scraping along the ground as this makes excessive noise and leaves large trails for trackers to follow.

Animal Stalking Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the animal is moving, you will need an intercepting route. Pick a route that puts objects between you and the animal to conceal your movement from it. By positioning yourself in this way, you will be able to move faster, until you pass that object. Some objects, such as large rocks and trees, may totally conceal you, and others, such as small bushes and grass, may only partially conceal you. Pick the route that offers the best concealment and requires the least amount of effort. Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears your way, especially if it suspects your presence. As you get close, squint your eyes slightly to conceal both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and any shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the animal does not see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.

Prerequisites and Related Skills

Wilderness survival, though a skill, includes the knowledge of a variety of different skills. The knowledge of such skills does not impart the ability to use them with a solid proficiency. Instead, this knowledge takes the form of a specialized lore that accompanies the Wilderness Survival Skill. This is referred to as Lore: Wilderness Survival Techniques. Thus by taking and training in Wilderness Survival, one gains the skill and the lore. This lore does NOT allow one to employ skills such as medicine, weaponsmithing, herbalism or any other related skills with proficiency equal to those trained in said skills. They merely use the rudimentary knowledge of these skills on a survival level.

Skill Progression

Novice (1-25)
	At the Novice level of survival, one gains a familiarity with a single type of environment. This is normally the environment in which the individual grew up and/or was raised in. The Novice is capable of surviving for up to seven days in this environment without having to rely upon the comforts of civilization. They possess the knowledge of basic techniques required to survive in the wilds although their level of comfort and ability is limited up to seven days before they must seek out some element of civilization else they begin to lose their ability to safely survive. Environment types include: Desert, Forest, Hills, Marsh, Mountains, Plains, Sea or Underground
Competent (26-50)
	A Competent survivalist gains a strong level of comfort within their primary environment as well as an additional one. Building upon the skill and knowledge gained from survival in their primary environment, the Competent survivor is capable of surviving in the wilds of two different environments for up to 14 days without the need for some element of civilization. They may choose their secondary environment from the list above. Once they have gone up to 14 days without contact with civilization, they must seek it out else begin to lose their ability to safely survive without it.
Expert (51-75)
	The Expert survivalist has honed their skills and knowledge to a point where they can safely apply it to a number of environments and situations. In addition to their primary and secondary environments, the Expert may choose 3 more tertiary environment types in which they can successfully survive, without the need for civilization for up to 30 days. Once they pass the 30-day mark, their ability to effectively survive in the wilds is severely reduced.
Master (76-100)
	The Master survivalist is one who does not require civilization in order to survive. They have transcended the need for any outside assistance on any level. These bushmen are one with the wild and can survive without civilization indefinitely. Anything and everything the Master needs can be gained from their environment which can be of any type. If a Master chose to, they could disappear into the wild and never be found by one of lesser skill and knowledge. Often, these individuals are so closely tied to the wilds of Mizahar that they shun civilization and view it more as a threat to their existence than something beneficial.